Geography :The Universe

Famous Personalities to contribute in the research of Universe and Geography

Claudius Ptolemy (90AD - 168AD).

• Scientist was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer and astrology.
• Propounded 48 constellation and named them.

Giordano Bruno (02 Dec, 1547 - 17 Feb, 1600)

• Birth place = Rome, Italy.
• Genre = Philosophy, Science, Astronomy,
• He is also called Martyr of science.
• His cosmological theories went beyond the Copernican model in identify the sunas just one of on infinite number independently moving heavenly bodies
• Sayings “Perhaps you pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it”

Nicolaus Copernicus (19 February 1473-24 May 158)

• Birth place = Royal Prisiya Poland
• He propounded Heliocentric model (ie Sun is the center of universe, not the earth)
• Wrote book "On the revolution of " Heavenly Sphere"

Johonnes kepler (27 dec 1571 - 15 Nov 1630)

• Birthplace = German
• Mathematician, Astronomer, Astrologer, natural philosophy
• Famous for Law of Planetary Motion and Kepler Conjecture
• Invented Retracting telescope
• Books Astronomies nova, Harmonic Mundi and Epitome Astronomies Copanicanae

Eratosthenes of Cyrene (276BC-195/194BS)

• Birth Place = Modan Libya
• Occupation = Scholar, Librarian, poet, inventor
• Known for = Sieve Eratosthenes of founder of Geography
• First person to calculate circumference of the Earth and tilt Earth of axis
• Measured distance from sun to Earth
• One crate in Moon is known a his Name Eratosthenes

Important Facts about Universe Study of universe is called Cosmology

• The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galovies and all other forms of matter and energy.
• Age = 13799 ± 0.023 billion years (within Lambda. CDM model)
• Diameter = Unknown (Diameter of observable universe: 88 x 10²6m (28.5Gpc or 93 Gly)
• Mass (ordinary matters) = at least 1053 kg
• Average density (including the = 9.9 x 10-30 g/cm contribution from energy)
• Average temperature = 2.72548k (-270.4°C or -454.8 F)
• Main Contents = Ordinary (baryonic matter (4.9)
  • Dark matter = 26.8%)
  • Dark energy = 68.3%
• 120 billion stars are arranged in the form of group.
• Pythagoras, who was an Ionian Greek philosopher and mathematician, first used the term “COSMOS” for the order of the Universe.
• Cosmology is the discipline that describes the large scale properties of the universe as a whole.
• The distance covered by light in one year is known as “Light Year.” The Velocity of light is 300,000 km/s.
• The distance between the Sun and the Earth is known as “Astronomical Unit.” One astronomical unit is (roughly) equal to 149.6 million kilometers.
• Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) is an Explorer Mission of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It is launched for the study and measurement of cosmology.
• Professor Sir Fred Hoyle, who was an English astronomer, coined the term “Big Bang” to explain a scientific theory on the creation of cosmos.
• Galaxy is a huge collection of stellar and interstellar matter, which are bound together by its own gravity in the Space. There are several galaxies in the universe, for example, Milky Way.
• The name galaxy where we live is ‘Milky Way.’
• The largest galaxy is ‘Andromeda Galaxy.’ It is also the closest to Milky Way. Milky Way is the second largest galaxy.
• The radius of Milky Way is about 50,000 light years.
• The Solar System is a part of Milky Way.
• The Sun takes 225 million light years to complete one circuit.
• The collapsed stars, which are immeasurably dense and having huge gravitational force (even light cannot escape rather get absorbed) are known as “Black Holes.”
• Quasar is a massive and extremely remote celestial object that keeps emitting remarkably large amounts of energy. Typically, it has a star like image, which can be seen through the telescope.
• Constellation is a group of stars being arranged in a pictorial configuration. It was basically observed by the ancient astronomers. For example, Sirius (Canis Major), Canopus (Carina), Turus (Bootes), etc.
• Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) is the British Astronomy center, located at Chajnantor (at an altitude of about 5,000 meters), in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile.
• Edwin Hubble, who was an American astronomer, first studied galaxies in detail. Based on Shape, Edwin classified galaxies as Elliptical, Spiral, and Barred Spiral.
• At the end of life-cycle, when a star loses its light and the density increases (very high), by this time, it is largely composed of neutrons and hence known as ‘Neutron Star.’
• Most likely, the rotating neutron star emits intermittent radio signals, is known as ‘Pulsar.’
• A star with low temperature and small mass (glowing feebly) is known as ‘Red Dwarf.’
• A star that suddenly increases its brightness (greatly) because of a catastrophic explosion and ejects most of its mass is known as ‘Supernova.’
• Satellites (or Moons) are the bodies that keep revolving around their respective planets. For example, Moon revolves around the Earth, etc.
• The Sun is the closest star to the Earth (at the distance of about 149,600,000 km).
• Located at the distance of about 4.24 light-years, Proxima Centauri is the second closest star to the Earth.
• The Sun is made up of extremely hot gasses and its glowing surface is known as the ‘Photosphere.’ The layer immediately above the photosphere is known as ‘Chromosphere’ (sphere of color).
• The Chromosphere is 10,000 km thick transparent shell of plasma.
• The Outermost layer of the Sun is known as the ‘Corona.’
• Temperature of the outer surface is 6,0000 C and interior temperature is 15,000,0000 C.
• The rotation period of the Sun is 25 days, 9 hours, and 7 minutes.
• The traveling speed of the Sun’s Rays is 30,000 m/s.
• The time taken by Sun’s Rays to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 16.6 seconds.
• The Sun is largely composed (chemically) of Hydrogen (71%), Helium (26.5%), and some other elements (2.5%).
• Sometimes, in the photosphere, some patches of gas, which is cooler that its surrounding (gas) are known as the ‘Sunspots.’
• The Planets are the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun as well as (at the same time) rotate on their imaginary axis.
• The “point of no return” around a black hole is called the “event horizon”. This is the region where the gravity of the black hole overcomes the momentum of material spinning around it in the accretion disk. Once something cross the event horizon, it is lost to the pull of the black hole.
• Black holes were first proposed to exist in the 18th century, but remained a mathematical curiosity until the first candidate black hole was found in 1964. It was called Cygnus X-1, an x-ray source in the constellation Cygnus.
• Cygnus X-1: a stellar-mass black hole and x-ray source that lies some 6,500 light-years away. It is a binary system that contains a blue supergiant variable star and the x-ray source thought to be the black hole.
• Sagittarius A: the supermassive black hole at the heart of the Milky Way Galaxy. It lies in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. This black hole contains the mass of about 4 million suns.
• M87: this elliptical galaxy has a 3.5 billion solar-mass black hole at its heart. The black hole is surrounded by a disk of superheated material and has a jet of superheated material streaming away from the black hole that extends across 5,000 light-years from the galaxy’s core.
• Centaurus A: this galaxy, which lies in the direction of the constellation Centaurus, is a giant spiral galaxy with an incredibly active nucleus. It contains a 55 million solar-mass black hole at its heart, with two jets of material that stream away from the galaxy at about half the speed of light across a million light-years of space.
• A nebula is a cloud of gas and dust in interstellar space. Every nebula contains hydrogen and helium, plus a mixture of other gases.
• Exoplanets, also called “extrasolar planets” are worlds orbiting other stars. The Kepler Mission was launched to search out distant worlds.
• The Kuiper Belt (sometimes referred to as the Kuiper-Edgeworth Belt) is an area of the outer solar system that is estimated to stretch across 20 astronomical units (AU) of space. It contains small solar system bodies made mostly of ices
• The Oort Cloud is a theorised shell of icy objects that lie beyond the Kuiper Belt.

Galaxy

• Gravitationally bound system of star, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust and dark matter
• A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of stars, stellar objects (such as brown dwarfs and neutron stars), nebulae, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, black holes, and an unknown component of dark matter.
• There are three main types by their shapes: spirals, ellipticals, and irregulars
• Example of Galaxies: Milky Way Galaxy, Andromeda Galaxy, Sombrero Galaxy, Whirlpool Galaxy, Triangulum Galaxy, Magallanic Clouds, Pinwheel Galaxy, Messier 87 Galaxy, Antennae Galaxies
• We live in Milky way Galaxy.
• Nearest galaxy to us is Andromeda.
• The Milky Way’s central core contains a supermassive black hole. It is commonly referred to as Sagittarius A. It contains the mass of about 4.3 million Suns.
• Our galaxy will collide with Andromeda Galaxy in about 5 billion years. Some astronomers refer to our two galaxy as a binary system of giant spirals.
• The Milky Way moves through space at a velocity of about 552 kilometres per second (343 miles per second) with respect to the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
• The Milky Way began as a series of dense regions in the early universe not long after the Big Bang. The first stars to form were in globular clusters that still exist. They are among the oldest stars formed in the Milky Way region.
• The Milky Way has grown by merging with other galaxies through time. It is currently acquiring stars from a very small galaxy called the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal, as well as gobbling up material from the Magellanic Clouds.

• It takes 1 lakh light year to reach from one end of galaxy to another end.

Solar System

• Age = 4.568 billion years.
• Location = Local interstellar cloud, Local Bubble, orion-cygnus Arm, Milky way.
• Systm mass = 1.0614 Solar masses.
• Nearest star = Pronima Centauri (4.25 light year ) Alpha Centauri (4.37ly)
• Nearest known planetary system = Pronima Centaur System (4.25 kg)
• 1 light year = 96 kharba k.m. (light year is the distance travel by a light in a year).
• Our solar system consist of 1 Sun, 166 Moon, 8 Planets, 30000 Asteroids, 100 Comets.
• Small inner planet: Mercury Venus Earth Mars (Terrestrial planets).
• Outer giants: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune Mixture of huge amount of gas.
• Uranus and Neptune are also known as ice giants.
• Seres, Pluto, Haumiya, Makemake, It is etc: Dwarf Planet.
• Jupiter and Saturn consist of hydrogen and helium in large amount
• Small inner planet and outer giants are separated by asteroids belt.

The Sun (Helios)

Figure: Internal structure of Sun

• Mass of Sun = 1.99 x 1030 (almost 2x10³ kg)
• Distance from earth to sun = 149600000km (almost 1.5X108 km)
• Major composition = Hydrogen (76.4%), (Helium (21.8%), Oxygen (0.77%)
• 109 times larger than earth 3 lakh 33 thousand times heavier than earth.
• Outer surface is 5540°C
• At the center 1,50,00,000°C
• It takes 8 min 20 sec to reach sunlight to earth.
• Sun consist of large amount of hydrogen.
• Sun takes 25 days to complete one rotation on about its axis.
• 'Umbra' are the black dots found in sun.
• Bright lines seen on the surface of sun is 'Penumber'.
• Aphelion:- Point at which earth is farthest from sun.
• Perihelion:- Point at which earth is closest to sun.

Facts about Planets

More facts about planets

• Some Dwarf planets: Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, Eris
• Ceres was 1st found dwarf planet.
• Tallest mountain is in Mars

Moon

• Moon is 3,83400 km far from earth
• Diameter of Moon 3456km
• 1/81 times smaller than earth
• 1/6 times smaller gravity.
• Moon takes 27 days 7 hr. 43min. 11sec. to complete revolution of earth.
• Moon is the only known satellite of the Earth.
• Moons rotation time (on its axis) and revolution time (around the Earth) is same (i.e. 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 11.47 seconds. This is the reason that we always see only one side of the Moon.
• Moon revolves around the Earth once in every 27.3 days, which is known as ‘Sidereal Month;’ however, it takes 29.5 days to return to the same point on the celestial sphere in reference to the Sun (due to revolution motion of the Earth around the Sun) and it is known as ‘Synodic Month.’
• When two full Moons occur in the same month, it is known as ‘Blue Moon.’
• A Full Moon is basically the lunar phase that occurs when the Moon is completely illuminated as seen from the Earth.
• The Lunar Phase or phase of the moon, is the shape of the illuminated portion of the Moon that is visible from the Earth. As Moon revolves, the lunar phases change cyclically and we can see from the full moon (full visible) to the new moon (not at all visible).
• Recently super moon was Obsorved in 2073 Mangsir 29./2016 November 14

Astoroids

• Asteroids, also known as small planets or planetoids, are the rocky debris largely found between the planets Mars and Jupiter. These are too small to have their own atmosphere.
• The Asteroids revolve around the Sun, which varies from 3 to 10 years
• By the time, more than 450,000 Asteroids are discovered; the largest Asteroid is Ceres, which diameter is about 1,025 km.

Metros

• Meteors, also popular as ‘Shooting Star’ or ‘Falling Star,’ is the passage of a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid into the Earth's atmosphere. It is heated (because of the collisions with air particles) and normally seen in the upper atmosphere
• Meteoroids are the small rocky or metallic bodies that normally travel through outer space. Meteoroids are expressively smaller than asteroids, and its size ranges from small grains to 1-meter-wide objects.

Comets

• Comets are the icy small Solar System body; normally while passing close to the Sun, heats up and starts to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere (i.e. basically coma) along with a tail
• Helij comet is seen in every 76 years
• Inke comet, bop comet, Joya etc.are some examples of comets.
• Commets are also known as long-haired star

Miscellaneous

• J 1823-3021A Star was found later and also known as Youngest star.
• Sputanik-1 Manmade 1st satellite by Russia in 4 October 1957.
• Luna-2; 1959 went to Moon
• Vostake-1; 1st satellite by Russia with man = Uri Gagarin in space.
• Enplorer-1; 1st space craft by USA to space.
• 16 July 1966 Cape kenedi, Apolo (Nil Armstrong, Buz Aldrin, Micheal kalins) reached Moon at Sea of Traquility. returned back to pacific ocean in 24 July 1966
• Alan Wartlet Separd- 2nd Person to reach space 1st from USA.
• Lunar Sikretar Observation and sending satellite: sent by NASA to Moon to know exactly that there is water in the surface of Moon or not.
• Violent explosion of star having high mass is super nova.
• France depends more in atomic energy in the world.
• Danish Tito; 1st tourist to space in 2001, USA, Soyuj, Anuseh Ansari (Iran/USA) 1st lady tourist.

• "It's one step for a man, but one giant leap for mankind" – Nil Armstrong.
• Valentina Mladimi rovna Tereskov:- Russia, 1st lady to space
• Ami Jonsan:- Queen of the air

The Big Bang theory

• Word “Big Bang Theory" wasfirst used by British astroloyor Fred Hoyle in 1950AD.
• Big bang theory is the leading enplanation about How the universe began. At its simplest, it say the universe as we know it started with an infinitely hot, infinitely dense singularity, then inflated-first.

Steady state model

• At unimaginable speed, and then at a more measurable rate- over the nent 13.8 billion to the cosmos that we know today.

Steady state cosmology model

• British Physist sir Jems Jeans proposed this law similar to. Big bang theory.

Cosmic microwave Background radiation (CMBR)

• Thought to be leftover radiation from the Bigbang or the time when the universe began.
• Theory goes, when the universe was born it underwent a rapid inflation and expansion.
• This concept was proposed by American radio astronomers Robert Wilson and Arno Denzlas
• There is a concept that up Earth's Crust is made up of 7 main and many small plates.

Big Crunch

• Big Crunch is a hypothetical sceniro for the ultimate fate of the universe in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentially follow by a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang.

Eclipse

• When nights and days are equal is known as ‘Equinoxes.’ During the equinox’s time, the Sun shines exactly over the equator.
• March 21 (of every year) is known as the vernal (spring) equinox and September 23 (of every year) is known as the autumnal equinox.
• When the difference between the length of day and night is maximum is known as ‘Solstice.’
• During the solstice time, the Sun shines over the tropics (either on Tropic of Cancer or Tropic Capricorn).
• 23.500 North represents ‘Tropic of Cancer.’ On June 21, the Sun shines over the Tropic of Cancer and it is known as the longest day of the year.
• June 21 is known as the Summer Solstice.
• 23.500 South represents ‘Tropic of Capricorn.’ On December 21, the Sun shines over the Tropic of Capricorn and it is known as the longest night of the year.
• December 21 is known as Winter Solstice.
• An eclipse happens when a planet or a moon gets in the way of the Sun’s light. Here on Earth, we can experience two kinds of eclipses: solar eclipses and lunar eclipses.
• Solar Eclipse: When the Moon come between the Sun and the Earth, it is known as “Solar Eclipse.

Figure: Solar Eclipse

• Lunar Eclipse: When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon, it is known as “Lunar Eclipse.”

Figure: Lunar Eclipse